Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport
Volume 13, Issue 4 , Pages 410-416 , July 2010

Mortality and longevity of elite athletes

  • Masaru Teramoto

      Affiliations

    • Department of Sports Education Leadership, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA
    • Corresponding Author InformationCorresponding author.
  • ,
  • Timothy J. Bungum

      Affiliations

    • Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA

Received 21 October 2008 ,Revised 3 April 2009 ,Accepted 30 April 2009.

References 

  1. Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee . Physical activity guidelines advisory committee report, 2008. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2008;
  2. Expert Panel on the Identification Evaluation and Treatment of Overweight, Obesity in Adults . Executive summary of the clinical guidelines on the identification, evaluation, and treatment of overweight and obesity in adults. Arch Intern Med. 1998;158(17):1855–1867
  3. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . 2008 Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2000;
  4. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services . Healthy People 2010. vol. II. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services; 2000;
  5. Paffenbarger RS, Lee I-M. A natural history of athleticism, health and longevity. J Sports Sci. 1998;16(Suppl. 1):S31–S45
  6. Wannamethee SG, Shaper AG. Physical activity in the prevention of cardiovascular disease: an epidemiological perspective. Sports Med. 2001;31(2):101–114
  7. Shaper AG, Wannamethee G, Walker M. Physical activity, hypertension and risk of heart attack in men without evidence of ischaemic heart disease. J Hum Hypertens. 1994;8(1):3–10
  8. Maron BJ, Poliac LC, Roberts WO. Risk for sudden cardiac death associated with marathon running. J Am Coll Cardiol. 1996;28(2):428–431
  9. Thompson PD, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Blair SN, Corrado D, Estes NAM, et al. Exercise and acute cardiovascular events: placing the risks into perspective. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2007;39(5):886–897
  10. Sarna S, Sahi T, Koskenvuo M, Kaprio J. Increased life expectancy of world class male athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993;25(2):237–244
  11. Åstrand P-O, Rodahl K. Physical training. Textbook of Work Physiology. 3rd ed.. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company; 1986;
  12. Coleman AE. Physiological characteristics of major league baseball players. Phys Sports Med. 1982;10(5):51–57
  13. Maud PJ. Physiological and anthropometric parameters that describe a rugby union team. Br J Sports Med. 1983;17(1):16–23
  14. Wilmore JH, Haskell WL. Body composition and endurance capacity of professional football players. J Appl Physiol. 1972;33(5):564–567
  15. Karvonen MJ, Klemola H, Virkajarvi J, Kekkonen A. Longevity of endurance skiers. Med Sci Sports. 1974;6(1):49–51
  16. Taioli E. All causes of mortality in male professional soccer players. Eur J Public Health. 2007;17(6):600–604
  17. Belli S, Vanacore N. Proportionate mortality of Italian soccer players: is amyotrophic lateral sclerosis an occupational disease?. Eur J Epidemiol. 2005;20(3):237–242
  18. Abel EL, Kruger ML. Longevity of major league baseball players. Res Sports Med. 2005;13(1):1–5
  19. Abel EL, Kruger ML. The healthy worker effect in major league baseball revisited. Res Sports Med. 2006;14(1):83–87
  20. Metropolitan Life Insurance Company . Longevity of major league baseball players. Stat Bull Metropol Life Insur Co. 1975;56:2–4
  21. Waterbor J, Cole P, Delzell E, Andjelkovich D. The mortality experience of major-league baseball players. N Engl J Med. 1988;318(19):1278–1280
  22. Armstrong GL, Conn LA, Pinner RW. Trends in infectious disease mortality in the United States during the 20th century. JAMA. 1999;281(1):61–66
  23. Cooper R, Cutler J, Desvigne-Nickens P, Fortmann SP, Friedman L, Havlik R, et al. Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention. Circulation. 2000;102(25):3137–3147
  24. Abel EL, Kruger ML. The healthy worker effect in professional football. Res Sports Med. 2006;14(4):239–243
  25. Beaglehole R, Stewart A. The longevity of international rugby players. N Z Med J. 1983;96(735):513–515
  26. Parssinen M, Kujala U, Vartiainen E, Sarna S, Seppala T. Increased premature mortality of competitive powerlifters suspected to have used anabolic agents. Int J Sports Med. 2000;21(3):225–227
  27. Gajewski AK, Poznanska A. Mortality of top athletes, actors and clergy in Poland: 1924–2000 follow-up study of the long term effect of physical activity. Eur J Epidemiol. 2008;23:335–340
  28. Menotti A, Amici E, Gambelli GC, Milazzotto F, Bellotti P, Capocaccia R, et al. Life expectancy in Italian track and field athletes. Eur J Epidemiol. 1990;6(3):257–260
  29. Schnohr P. Longevity and causes of death in male athletic champions. Lancet. 1971;2(7738):1364–1366
  30. Lee IM, Skerrett PJ. Physical activity and all-cause mortality: what is the dose–response relation?. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(Suppl. 6):S459–S471
  31. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Barlow CE, Paffenbarger RS, Gibbons LW, Macera CA. Changes in physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy and unhealthy men. JAMA. 1995;273(14):1093–1098
  32. Blair SN, Kohl HW, Paffenbarger RS, Clark DG, Cooper KH, Gibbons LW. Physical fitness and all-cause mortality. A prospective study of healthy men and women. JAMA. 1989;262(17):2395–2401
  33. Williams PT. Physical fitness and activity as separate heart disease risk factors: a meta-analysis. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(5):754–761
  34. Frederiksen H, Christensen K. The influence of genetic factors on physical functioning and exercise in second half of life. Scand J Med Sci Sports. 2003;13(1):9–18
  35. Montgomery H, Safari L. Genetic basis of physical fitness. Annu Rev Anthropol. 2007;36:391–405
  36. Fogelholm M, Kaprio J, Sarna S. Healthy lifestyles of former Finnish world class athletes. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1994;26(2):224–229
  37. Kujala UM, Sarna S, Kaprio J, Tikkanen HO, Koskenvuo M. Natural selection to sports, later physical activity habits, and coronary heart disease. Br J Sports Med. 2000;34(6):445–449
  38. Pollock ML, Franklin BA, Balady GJ, Chaitman BL, Fleg JL, Fletcher B, et al. Resistance exercise in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: benefits, rationale, safety, and prescription: an advisory from the Committee on Exercise, Rehabilitation, and Prevention, Council on Clinical Cardiology, American Heart Association. Circulation. 2000;101(7):828–833
  39. Williams MA, Haskell WL, Ades PA, Amsterdam EA, Bittner V, Franklin BA, et al. Resistance exercise in individuals with and without cardiovascular disease: 2007 update: a scientific statement from the American Heart Association Council on Clinical Cardiology and Council on Nutrition, Physical Activity, and Metabolism. Circulation. 2007;116(5):572–584
  40. Blair SN, Cheng Y, Holder JS. Is physical activity or physical fitness more important in defining health benefits?. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2001;33(6 Suppl.):S379–S399
  41. Kujala UM, Kaprio J, Taimela S, Sarna S. Prevalence of diabetes, hypertension, and ischemic heart disease in former elite athletes. Metabolism. 1994;43(10):1255–1260
  42. Miller MA, Croft LB, Belanger AR, Romero-Corral A, Somers VK, Roberts AJ, et al. Prevalence of metabolic syndrome in retired National Football League players. Am J Cardiol. 2008;101(9):1281–1284
  43. Rogers RG, Hummer RA, Krueger PM. The effect of obesity on overall, circulatory disease- and diabetes-specific mortality. J Biosoc Sci. 2003;35(1):107–129
  44. Livingston EH, Ko CY. Effect of diabetes and hypertension on obesity-related mortality. Surgery. 2005;137(1):16–25
  45. Curry LA, Wagman DF. Qualitative description of the prevalence and use of anabolic androgenic steroids by United States powerlifters. Percept Mot Skills. 1999;88(1):224–233
  46. Thiblin I, Petersson A. Pharmacoepidemiology of anabolic androgenic steroids: a review. Fundam Clin Pharmacol. 2005;19(1):27–44
  47. Sjoqvist F, Garle M, Rane A. Use of doping agents, particularly anabolic steroids, in sports and society. Lancet. 2008;371(9627):1872–1882
  48. de Groot LCPMG , Verheijden MW, de Henauw S, Schroll M, van Staveren WA. Lifestyle, nutritional status, health, and mortality in elderly people across Europe: a review of the longitudinal results of the SENECA study. J Gerontol A: Biol Sci Med Sci. 2004;59(12):1277–1284
  49. Iestra JA, Kromhout D, van der Schouw YT, Grobbee DE, Boshuizen HC, van Staveren WA. Effect size estimates of lifestyle and dietary changes on all-cause mortality in coronary artery disease patients: a systematic review. Circulation. 2005;112(6):924–934
  50. Cook DJ, Mulrow CD, Haynes RB. Systematic reviews: synthesis of best evidence for clinical decisions. Ann Intern Med. 1997;126(5):376–380

PII: S1440-2440(09)00114-5

doi: 10.1016/j.jsams.2009.04.010

Journal of Science and Medicine in Sport
Volume 13, Issue 4 , Pages 410-416 , July 2010